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Duration of Antibody Responses after Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (2007) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851497/ n = 176 SARS-specific antibodies were maintained for an average of 2 years Significant reduction of immunoglobulin G in the third year Covid-19: Do many people have pre-existing immunity? https://www.bmj.com/content/370/bmj.m3563 But T cell studies allow for a substantially different, more optimistic, interpretation. SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell immunity in cases of COVID-19 and SARS, and uninfected controls (Nature, 2020) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32668444/ n = 36 In all of these individuals, we found CD4 and CD8 T cells that recognized multiple regions of the N protein Coronavirus nucleocapsid (N), structural protein that forms complexes with genomic RNA Patients (n = 23) who recovered from SARS (SARS-CoV-1 infection) Possess long-lasting memory T cells, reactive, 17 years after 2003 These T cells displayed robust cross-reactivity to the N protein of SARS-CoV-2 Epitope characterization of specific T cells showed the recognition of protein fragments that are conserved among animal betacoronaviruses Persistent Cellular Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 Infection https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.12.08.416636v1 Introduction Cellular and humoral immune responses to infection Antibody responses include most of the structural proteins expressed by the virus Neutralizing antibodies directed primarily to the receptor binding domain of the spike Lymphopenia is a prominent feature of severe infection During acute infection, T cells displayed a highly activated cytotoxic phenotype Convalescent patients harbored polyfunctional SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells, that display a stem like memory phenotype Cross-reactivity with seasonal/common cold coronaviruses May be associated with a milder clinical course Coronaviruses, levels of persistent Immunity Four seasonal coronaviruses, immunity 6 to 12 months Immune response in recovered individuals, measured T cell responses Paired samples, average of 1.3 months and 6.1 months after infection N = 41 individuals 63.4% male and 36.6% female 24-73 years old Various disease severity, skewed to mild Recovered individuals show persistent polyfunctional SARS-CoV-2 antigen specific memory Could contribute to rapid recall responses Recovered individuals Enduring immune alterations and numbers CD4+ T cells (helpers) CD8+ T cells (cytotoxic) Summary Broadly reactive and highly functional memory T cell responses Persist 6 months after infection Enduring immune alterations in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells compartments. Specific circulating T cell numbers goes down over 6 months SARS-CoV-2 infection induces long-lived bone marrow plasma cells in humans https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03647-4 Long lived bone marrow plasma memory cells Convalescent individuals have a significantly lower risk of reinfection Patients who experienced mild infections (n=77) Spike (S) antibodies decline rapidly in the first 4 months after infection Then more gradually over the following 7 months Remaining detectable at least 11 months after infection Bone marrow aspirates, S-specific BMPCs 18 SARS-CoV-2 convalescent patients 7 to 8 months after infection 7 to 8 months after infection 5 patients 11 months after infection 7 to 8 months no S-specific plasma blasts 11 healthy subjects with no history of SARS-CoV-2 infection We demonstrate that S-binding BMPCs are quiescent, indicating that they are part of a long-lived compartment. Overall, we show that SARS-CoV-2 infection induces a robust antigen-specific, long-lived humoral immune response in humans. Immunity may persist https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/26/health/coronavirus-immunity-vaccines.html Scott Hensley, immunologist, University of Pennsylvania The papers are consistent with the growing body of literature that suggests that immunity elicited by infection and vaccination for SARS-CoV-2 appears to be long-lived The reason we get infected with common coronaviruses repetitively throughout life might have much more to do with variation of these viruses rather than immunity Michel Nussenzweig, immunologist, Rockefeller University, New York People who were infected and get vaccinated really have a terrific response, a terrific set of antibodies, because they continue to evolve their antibodies I expect that they will last for a long time Boosters doses? Probably for those only vaccinated That’s the kind of thing that we will know very, very soon

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